Livestock waste and its impact on the environment
Keywords:
Livestock, Health, Water, Air, Soil, ManagementAbstract
Livestock industries produce meat, milk and egg, and also generate large volumes of wastes that could be harmful to the environment if not well managed. The demand for animal products is driven by increasing per capital incomes, urbanization, changing lifestyles as well as rapid population growth. These increases in demand for animal products are expected to continue in the years to come. Livestock keepers on the quest of optimizing the benefit of the ever increasing demand for their products have resorted in the production and accumulation of large volumes of wastes. However, the disposal of these wastes continues to be a challenge from the standpoints of cost, environmental safety, and biosecurity. The question remains how would these livestock wastes be managed without detrimental effects on food security, natural resources and health? This review was necessitated in an attempt to answer these questions.
References
Anonymous, 2002. The Composition of Foods (Sixth Summary Edition), 537 pp, Royal Society of Chemistry and the
Food Standards Agency, Cambridge, UK.
Apsimon, H.M., Kruse, M., Bell, J.N.B., 1987. Ammonia emissions and their role in acid deposition, Atmosph.
Environ., 21, 1939–1946. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(87)90154-5
Arancon, N.O., Edward, C.A., Bierman, P., Motzquar, J.O., Lee, S., Welch, C., 2003. Effects of vermicompost on
growth and marketable fruits of field grown tomatoes, peppers and strawberries. Pediobiol., 47, 731-735.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-4056(04)70260-7 , http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0031-4056-00251
Bajsa, O., Nair, J., Mathew, K. & Ho, G.E. (2003).Vermiculture as a tool for domestic waste water management.
Water Sci. and Tech., 48, 124-132.
Bell, D.D. (2002). Waste Management. In: Chicken meat and egg production, 5th edition (Bell, D.D. and Weaver, Jr.,
W.D., eds). Kluwer Academic publisher. Massachusetts.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0811-3_11 , http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0811-3
Berendse, F., 1990. Organic matter accumulation and nitrogen mineralization during secondary succession in
heathland ecosystems. J. Ecol. 78, 413 – 427. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2261121
Borgers, P., Huothuijs, D., Remijn, B., Brouner B. & Blersker, K. (1997). Lung function and respiratory symptoms in
pig farmers. British J. Industrial Med., 44, 819 - 823.
Bouwman, A.F., Booij, H., 1998. Global use and trade of foodstuffs and consequences for the nitrogen cycle, Nutr.
Cycl. Agroecosys. 52, 261 – 267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009763706114
Brown, J., 1996. All involved in poultry are responsible for biosecurity. Poultry Times, Gainesville, GA, p. 17.
Buckerfield, J.C., Flavel, T.C., Lee, K.E., Webster, K.A., 1999. Vermicompost in solid and liquid form as a plant
growth promoter. Pedobiol. 43, 753 - 759.
Bui Xuan, A.N., Preston, T.R. & Dolberg, F. (1997). The introduction of low-cost polyethylene tube bio-digesters on
small scale farms in Vietnam, Livestock Res. Rural Development. 9, 6 - 7. http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd.
Burton, C.H., 1997. Manure Management – Treatment strategies for sustainable agriculture, Silsoe Research
Institute, Bedford, UK.
Burton, C.H., Turner, C., 2003. Manure Management: Treatment Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture, 2nd
edition, Silsoe Research Institute, Bedford, UK.
Cameron, R., Mohammed, H., Ward, D., 2000. Area-wide integration (AWI) and its implications for animal and
human health. Discussion Keynote Paper, Session 3 of Electronic Conference on Area Wide Integration of
Specialized Crop and Livestock Production, 5pp.
http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/ele/awi_2000/3session/3paper.htm
http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/ele/awi_2000/3session/3plenary.txt.
CEC, 1991. Commission of The European Communities, Council Directive of 12 December 1991 concerning the
protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources (91/676/CEC). Official J.
Europ. Commun. Nr. L. 375(31.12.91), 1 – 8.
CEC, 2003. Commission of The European Communities, Commission Regulation (EC) No 1334/2003 of 25 July 2003
amending the conditions for authorization of a number of additives in feeding stuffs belonging to the group
of trace elements, Official J. Europ. Uni. Nr. L. 187/11 (26.7.2003).
Chavez, C., Coufal, C.D., Lacey, R.E., Carey, J.B., Beier, R.C., Zhan, J.A., 2004. The impact of supplemented dietary
methionine source on volatiles compound concentrations in broiler excreta. Poult. Sci. 83, 901 - 910.
Cheeke, P.R., 1999. Applied Animal Nutrition-Feed and feeding, second edition, Macmillan Publishing Company.
New York.
Cole, D.J.A., Tuck, K., 2002. European approaches to reducing ammonia emission. In: Proceedings of 2002 National
Poultry Waste Management Symposium. PP. 59 - 66.
Correll, D.L., 1999. Phosphorus: a rate limiting nutrient in surface waters. Poultry Science 78 (5), 675 – 682.
Crews, J. R., Donald, J. O. & Blake, J.P., 1995. An economic evaluation of dead-bird disposal systems. Circular ANR-
, Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Christmas, R. B., Damron, B.L. & Ouart, M.D. (1996). The performance of commercial broilers when fed various
levels of rendered whole-hen meal. Poultry Sci., 75, 536 - 539.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.0750536
Curtis, S.E. & Drummond, J.G., 1982. Air environment and animal performance. In: Handbook of Agricultural
Productivity, vol.2, Animal Productivity (Rechcigi, M.Jr., ed.), CRC Press Inc, Florida, USA.
Daghir, N.J. (1995). Poultry production in hot climates. CABI, Wallingford.
Damron, W.S., 2000. Introduction to animal science. Global biological, social and industry perspective. Prentice
Hall. New Jersey.
Davies, R.H., 1997. A two year study of Salmonella typhimurium DT104 infection and contamination on cattle
farms, Cattle Practice, 5, 189 – 194.
De, N.V., Murrell, K.D., Cong, P.D., Cam, P.D., Chau, L.V., Toan, N.D. & Dalsgaard, A., 2003. The food borne
trematode diseases and zoonoses of Vietnam, Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub. Health, 34, 12 – 34.
Delahaye, R., Fong, P.K.N., Van Eerdt, M.M., Van Der Hoek, K.W. & Olsthoorn, C.S.M., 2003. Emissie van zeven
zware metalen naar landbouwgrond [Emission of seven heavy metals to agricultural soils]. Report, Central
Statistical Office (CBS), Voorburg/Heerlen, The Netherlands. Available at: http://www.cbs.nl/nlNL/default.htm
Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. & Courbois, C., 1999. Livestock to 2020 – The next food
revolution, Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 28, 72 pp. International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). IFPRI, Washington, USA.
Dominguez, J., Velando, A. & Ferreiro, A., 2005. Are Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei (Oligochaete lumbricidae)
different biological species? Pedobiol., 49, 81 - 87.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.2004.08.005
Dizer, H., Nasser, A. & Lopez, J.M., 1984. Penetration of different human pathogenic viruses into sand columns
percolated with distilled water, groundwater or liquid manure, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 47, 409 – 415.
Donald, J. O. & Blake, J.P., 1990. Dead bird composter construction. DPT Circular 10/90-001. Alabama Cooperative
Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Donald, J. O., Blake, J.P., Tucker, K. & Harkins, D., 1994. Mini-Composters in Poultry Production. Circular AND-804,
Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Donald, J. O., Mitchell, C. & Payne, V., 1990. Dead Bird Composting. Circular AND-558, Alabama Cooperative
Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Donhann, K., Reynolds, S., Whitten, P., Merchant, J., Burmeister, L. & Popendort, W., 1995. Respiratory dysfunction
in swine production facility workers, dose- response Relationships of environmental exposures and
pulmonary function. Am. J. Industrial Med., 27, 405 - 418.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700270309
PMid:7747746
EEC, 1980. European Economic Community, Council Directive 80/778/EEC of 15 July relating to the quality of water
intended for human consumption. Official Journal of the European Communities No L 229, (30.8.1980), p. 11.
EL Boushy, A.R.Y. & Vander poel, A.F.B., 2000. Handbook of poultry feed from waste: Processing and use. 2nd
edition. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordecht.
Elvira, C., Dominguez, J. & Mato, S., 1996. The growth and reproduction of Lumbricus rubella and Dendrobaena
rudida in cow manure mixed culture with Eisenia andrei. Appl. Soil Ecol., 15, 97 - 103.
Faostat data (2006). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
http://faostat.fao.org/site/336/default.aspx. fao.org/site/336/default.aspx.
Feddes, I.J.R. & Lickso, Z. J., 1993. Air quality in commercial turkey housing. Canadian Agricultural Engineering, 35,
-150.
Fischer, T.K., Steinsland, H., Mølbak, K., CA, R., Gentsch, J.R., Valentiner-branth, P., Aaby, P. & Sommerfelt, H.,
Genotype profiles of Rotavirus strains from children in a suburban community in Guinea-Bissau,
Western Africa, J. Clin. Microbiol., 38, 264 – 267. PMid:10618098 PMCid:88706
FDACS (1999). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Florida Agricultural Statistics ServiceLivestock, Dairy and Poultry Summary. Tallahassee, FL.
Fontenot, J.P., 1979. Alternative in animal waste management. Introductory comments. J.Anim. Sci., 48, 111-112.
Gerber, P., Chilonda, P., Franceschini, G. & Menzi, H. (2005). Geographical determinants and environmental
implications of livestock production intensification in Asia, Bioresource Technol., 96, 263 – 276.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.05.016
PMid:15381225
Harry, E. G., 1978. Air pollution in farm buildings and methods of control: a review.
Heij, G.J. & Schneider, T., 1995. Eindrapport Additioneel Programma Verzuringsonderzoek, derde fase (1991–1994)
[Final Report Dutch Priority Programme on Acidification, third phase (1991–1994)], Rapport nr. 300-05, Dutch
Priority Programme on Acidification, National Institute for Public Health and Environment, Bilthoven, The
Netherlands (in Dutch).
Henuk, Y.L., 2001. Nutrient adjustments of the diets fed to cage and barn laying hens to decrease waste. PhD
Thesis, University of Queensland.
Henuk, Y.L. & Dingle, J.G., 2002. Poultry waste: Current problems and solutions, In: Global Perspective in Livestock
waste management; proceedings of the 4th International Livestock Waste Management Symposium and
Technology Expo, Penang, Malaysia. 19-23 May 2002 Malaysia Society of Animal Production, Penang, pp.101-
Hogan, K.B., Hoffman, J.S. & Thompson, A.M., 1991. Methane on the greenhouse agenda, Nature, 354, 181–182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/354181a0
Hutchings, N.J., Sommer, S.G., Andersen, J.M. & Asman, W.A.H., 2001. A detailed ammonia emission inventory for
Denmark, Atmosph. Environ., 35, 1959 – 1968. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00542-2
IAEA/FAO, 2008. International Atomic Energy Agency/ Food and Agriculture Organisation Guidelines for
Sustainable Manure Management in Asian Livestock Production Systems. A publication prepared under the
framework of the RCA project on Integrated Approach for Improving Livestock Production Using Indigenous
Resources and Conserving the Environment.
Jarvis, S.C., Sherwood, M. & Steenvoorden, J.H.A.M., 1987. Nitrogen losses from animal manures: from grazed
pastures and from applied slurry, Animal Manure on Grassland and Fodder Crops: Fertilizer or Waste? (H.G.
Van Der Meer, R.J. Unwin, T.A. Van Dijk, G.C. Ennik, Eds.), Development Plant Soil Sci., 30, 195–212, Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Kelleher, B.P., Leahy, J.J., Henihan, A.M., O'Dwyer, T.F., Sutton, D. & Leahy, M.J., 2002. Advances in poultry litter
disposal technology-a review. Biores. Tech., 83, 27-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00133-X
Ketelaars, J.J.M.H. & Van Der Meer, H.G., 2000. Establishment of criteria for the assessment of the nitrogen
content of animal manures, Final Report to DG XI of the European Commission, Report 14, 64 pp. + Annexes,
Plant Research International, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Khalil, M.A.K. & Rasmussen, R.A., 1992. The global sources of nitrous oxide, J. Geophys. Res., 97: 14651–14660.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92JD01222
Krupa, S.V., 2003. Effects of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) on terrestrial vegetation: review, Environ. Pollution,
,179–221.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00434-7
Leha, C., 1998. Biodigester effluent versus manure, from pigs or cattle, as fertilizer for duckweed (Lemna spp.),
Livestock Res. & Rural Dev., pp: 5. http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd.
Lekkerkerk, L.J.A., Heij, G.J. & Hootsmans, M.J.M., 1995. Ammoniak: de feiten. [Ammonia: the facts], Rapport nr.
-06, Dutch Priority Programme on Acidification, State Institute for Public Health and Environment,
Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
Lelieveld, J., Crutzen, P.J. & Dentener, F.J., 1998. Changing concentration, lifetime and climate forcing of
atmospheric methane, Tellus, 50B, 128–150.
Mackenzie, W.R., Hoxie, N.J., Proctor, M.E., Grad us, M.S., Blair, K.A., Peterson, D.E., Kazmierzak, J.J., Addis, D.G.,
Fox, K.R., Rose, J.B. & Davies, J.P., 1994. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply, New England J. Med., 331, 161 – 167.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199407213310304,PMid:7818640
Maghirang, R.G., Manbeck, H.B., Roush, W.B. & Muir, E.V., 1991. Air contaminant distributions in a commercial
laying house. Transactions of the Ame. Soc. of Agricultural Eng., 34, 2171-2180.
Materechera, S.A. & Mkhabela, T.S., 2002. The effectiveness of lime, chicken manure and leaf litter ash in
ameliorating acidity in a soil previously under black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) plantation. Biores. Tech., 85, 9-16
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(02)00065-2
Mcllroy, W. & Martz, F.A., 1978. Cattle feed from solid waste components. In: Animal feed from waste materials,
(Gillies, M.T., ed.), Noyes Data Corporation, Park, Ridge, New Jersey, pp., 263-303.
Merrill, L. & Halverson, L.J., 2002. Seasonal variation in microbial communities and organic mal-odour indicator
compound concentrations in various types of swine manure storage systems. Environmental quality. 31,
-2085.
Moolenaar, S.W., 1999. Heavy-metal balances, part II. Management of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc in
European agro-ecosystems, J. Industrial Ecol., 3, 41–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/108819899569386
Moolenaar, S.W. & Lexmond, T. M., 1998. Heavy metal balances, part I. General aspects of cadmium, copper, zinc,
and lead balance studies in agro-ecosystems, J. Industrial Ecol., 2, 45 – 60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jiec.1998.2.4.45
Moore, P.A., 1998. Best management practices for poultry manure utilization that enhances agricultural
productivity and reduce pollution. In: Animal waste utilization: Effective use of manure as a soil resource. J.L.
Hatfield and B.A. Stewart, eds. Ann Arbor press, Chelsea, ML, pp. 89-123.
Nardone, A. & Valfrè, E., 1999. Effects of changing production methods on quality of meat milk and eggs. Livestock
Prod. Sci., 59, 165 – 182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-6226(99)00025-1
Ndegwa, P.M. & Thomas, S.A., 2000. Integrating composting and vermi-composting in the treatment and biological
conversion of biosolids. Biores. Tech., 76, 13 - 23.
Nguyen, X.T., 1998. The need for improved utilisation of rice straw as feed for ruminants in Vietnam: an overview,
Livestock Res. Rural Development, 10, 13 pp. http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd
Nicholson, F.A., Groves, S.J. & Chambers, B.J., 2005. Pathogen survival during livestock manure storage and
following land application, Biores. Technol., 96, 135 – 143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.02.030
PMid:15381209
Okoli, IC., Alaehie, D.A., Okoli, C.G., Akanno, E.C., Ogundu, U.E., Akujobi, C.T., Onyicha, I.D. & Chinweze, C.C.E.,
Aerial pollutant gases concentrations in tropical pig pen environment in Nigeria. Nature and Science, 4,
-5.
O'Neill, D.H. & Phillips, V.R. (1992). A review of the control of odour nuisance from livestock buildings. Part 3,
properties of the odorous substances, which have been identified in livestock wastes or in the air around
them. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 53, 23 - 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-
(92)80072-Z
Pizl, V. & Novakova, A., 2003. Interaction between micro fungi and Eisenia andrei (Oligochaete) during cattle
manure vermi-compositing. Pedobiol., 47, 895 - 899. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-4056(04)70286-3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/0031-4056-00277
Reynolds, S., Donham, K., Whitten, P., Merchant, J., Murmeister, L. & Popendorf, W., 1996. Longitudinal evaluation
of Doze- response relationships for environmental exposures and pulmonary function in swine production
workers. Am. J. Indus. Med., 29, 33 - 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0274(199601)29:1<33::AIDAJIM5>3.0.CO;2-#
Richardson, T., Pinckney, J. & Paerl, H., 2001. Responses of estuarine phytoplankton communities to nitrogen form
and mixing using microsm bioassays, Estuaries, 24, 828 - 839. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1353174
Rotz, C.A., 2004. Management to reduce nitrogen losses in animal production. Journal of Animal Science, 82: E119-
E137.PMid:15471791
Ryser, J.P., Walther, U. & Flisch, R., 2001. Données de bases pour la fumure des grandes cultures et des herbages
en Suisse, Engrais de Ferme Revue Suisse d’Agriculture. 33: 1–80.
Sainsbury, D., 1992. Poultry health and management-chickens, turkey, geese, quail. 3rd edn. Blackwell Scientific
Ltd, Oxford, UK.
Sloan, D.R., Kidder, G. & Jacobs, R.D., 2008. Poultry Manure as a Fertilizer. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
Smith, K.A., Jackson, D.R. & Pepper, T.J., 2001. Nutrient losses by surface run-off following the application of
organic manures to arable land. 1. Nitrogen, Environ. Pollution, 112, 41–51.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00098-1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00097-X
Smith, K.A. & Van Duk, T.A., 1987. Utilisation of phosphorus and potassium from animal manures on grassland and
forage crops, Animal Manure on Grassland and Fodder Crops: Fertilizer or Waste? (H.G. VAN DER MEER, R.J.
UNWIN, T.A. VAN DIJK, G.C. ENNIK, Eds.), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands.Development Plant Soil Sci., 30, 87–102,
Sommer, S.G. (2000). Area-wide integrated recycling of pig effluent in Thailand. Effluent treatment and handling,
DIAS Report no.17 DIAS, Denmark.
Sommer, S.G., Génermont, S., Cellier, P., Hutchings, N.J., Olesen, J.E. & Morvan, T., 2003. Processes controlling
ammonia emission from livestock slurry in the field, Europ. J. Agron., 19, 465 – 486.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(03)00037-6
Sommer, S.G. & Moller, H.B., 2000. Emission of green house gases during composting of deep litter from pig
production-effect of straw content. J. Agric. Sci., 134, 327 - 335.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0021859699007625
Sommer, S.G. & Hutching, N.J., 2001. Ammonia emission from field applied manure and its reduction- invited
paper. European Journal of Agronomy. 15, 1 - 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(01)00112-5
Stanley, K.N., Wallace, J.S., Currie, J.E., Diggle, P.J. & Jones, K., 1998. The seasonal variation of thermophilic
campylobacters in beef cattle, dairy cattle and calves, J. Appl. Microbiol., 85, 472–480.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1998.853511.x
PMid:9750278
Steinfeld, H. & Chilonda, P., 2006. Old players, new players, Livestock Report 2006, 3–14, Animal Production and
Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Strauch, D. (1986). Hygienic aspects of land use of municipal sewage sludge and animal manure, Efficient land use
of sludge and manure (A.D. Kofoed, J.H. Williams, P. L’hermite, Eds.), CEC Seminar, Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, London, UK. Pp: 224–237.
Taiganides, E.P., 1992. Pig waste management and recycling – The Singapore experience, 345 pp, International
Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
Taiganides, E.P., 2002. The solution to pollution. In: Global perspective in livestock waste management symposium
and technology expo, Penang; Malaysia, 19 - 23 May 2002, (Cong, H.K., Zulkifle, I., Tee, T.P. and Liang, J.B.
eds.). Malaysia Society of Animal Production, Penang, pp. 1-10.
Tamminga, S., Jongbloed, A.W., Van Eerdt, M.M., Aarts, H.F.M., Mandersloot, F., Hoogervorst, N.J.P. & Westhoek,
H., 2000. The forfaitaire excretie van stikstof door landbouwhuisdieren [Standards for the excretion of
nitrogen by farm animals], Rapport ID-Lelystad no. 00-2040R, Instituut voor Dierhouderij en Diergezondheid,
Lelystad, The Netherlands. Pp: 71.
Ten Have, P.J.W. & Van Voorneburg, F. (1994). Mestverwerking (Manure processing), (J.H. Van Middelkoop, Ed.),
Naar veehouderij en milieu in balans, 10 jaar FOMA onderzoek. Onderzoek inzake de mest- en
ammoniakproblematiek in de veehouderij 19 (Pluimvee). Dienst Landbouwkundig Onderzoek (DLO),
Wageningen, The Netherlands. pp: 51–59.
Tripathi, G. & Bhardwaj, P., 2003. Decomposition of chicken waste amended with cow manure using an epigeic
species (Eisenia foetida) and an anecic species (Lampito mauritii), Biores. Tech., 92, 215 - 218.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2003.08.013
PMid:14693456
UKTERG., 1988. United Kingdom Terrestrial Effects Review Group, The effects of acid deposition on the terrestrial
environment in the United Kingdom, First Report, HMSO Publications Centre, London, United Kingdom.
Van Breemen, N., Burrough, P.A., Velthorst, E.J., Van Dobben, H.F., De Wit, T., Ridder, T.B. & Reijnders, H.F.R.,
Soil acidification from atmospheric ammonium sulphate in forest canopy throughfall, Nature, 299, 548–
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/299548a0
Van Riemsdijk, W.H., Lexmond, Th.M., Enfield, C.G. & Van Der Zee, S.E.A.T.M., 1987. Phosphorus and heavy metals
accumulation and consequences. Animal Manure on Grassland and Fodder Crops: Fertilizer or Waste? (H.G.Van Der Meer, R.J. Unwin, T.A. Van Dijk, G.C. Ennik, Eds.), Development Plant Soil Sci., 30, 213–227, Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Van Der Meer, H.G., 2006. Reduction of Agricultural and rural Pollution by Innovative aDditives (RAPID), Final
Scientific Report of CRAFT Contract QLK5-CT-2001- 70429, Note 415, Plant Research International,
Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands. pp: 282.
Van Der Meer, H.G. & Wedin, W.F., 1989. Present and future role of grasslands and fodder crops in temperate
countries with special reference to over-production and environment. Proceedings of the XVI International
Grassland Congress. Nice, France. 3, 1711–1718.
Van Wambeke, A., 1976. Formation, distribution and consequences of acid soils in agricultural development. In:
Plant adaptation to mineral stress in problem soils, (Wright, M.J. ED.), Cornell University Press, New York,
pp.15-24.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2012 I. P. Ogbuewu, V. U. Odoemenam, A. A. Omede, C. S. Durunna, O. O. Emenalom, M. C. Uchegbu, I. C. Okoli, M. U. Iloeje
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.